6. Appendix: Glossary of morphological terms
A detailed Czech-English-Latin glossary of basic morphological terms of beetles, suitable for studying entomology, identifying and creating morphological descriptions.
6.1 Head morphology
| Czech | English | Latin | Description / Functions |
Head as a whole |
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| Hlava | Head | Caput | Anterior body compartment; carries the sensory organs (eyes, antennae) and oral organs. Protects the cerebral ganglion and oral apparatus. |
| Prognátní | Prognathous | Prognathum | The head points forward in line with the body, with the mouth facing forward. |
| Hypognátní | Hypognathous | Hypognathum | The head is turned slightly downward perpendicular to the body axis and may be partially hidden under the pronotum. |
| Opistognátní | Opistognathous | Opistognathum | The head points backward under the body at an acute angle. |
Forehead and vertex region |
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| Čelo | Frons | Frons | The area between the eyes, above the clypeus (temple). Bears frontal hernias, pits or grooves; may be diagnostically significant. |
| Temeno | Vertex | Vertex | The top of the head behind the forehead, between the eyes and the occiput. The height of the vertex and the presence of foveas or keels are indicated. |
| Týl | Occiput | Occiput | The back of the head, often passing into the occipital opening (foramen occipitale) through which the nerves and oesophagus pass. |
| Týlní otvor | Occipital foramen | Foramen occipitale | A large opening at the back of the head, connecting the head to the chest (through the cervical diaphragm). |
| Krk | Neck | Collum (Cervix) | The collum refers to the neck region between the head (caput) and thorax (prothorax), i.e., the narrowed part of the body connecting the head to the shield (pronotum). The neck allows the head to move relative to the thorax. It is often covered by the shield, which increases protection for the head. It provides attachment for the muscles that control the movements of the head and front thoracic segment. |
Anterior and oral part |
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| Přední štít (Klypesus) | Clypeus | Clypeus | Plate between the forehead (frons) and upper lip (labrum). Often movable, involved in opening the mouth. |
| Horní pysk | Labrum | Labrum | A lobed formation covering the incisors from the front; part of the oral apparatus, equipped with sensory hairs. |
| Epistomální šev | Epistomal suture | Sutura epistomalis | Line between forehead and gable (frons-clypeus); often distinct. |
| Kusadla | Mandibles | Mandibulae | Strong mandibular formations for biting and crushing food. They attach to a joint in the genae (cheeks). |
| Čelisti (dolní) | Maxillae | Maxillae | Paired, compound organs with tentacles (palpi maxillares) to help manipulate food. |
| Čelistní makadlo | Maxillary palp | Palpus maxillaris | Mandibular palps are jointed appendages (appendages) of the second pair of mandibles, i.e., maxillae. Each mandibular palp usually has 4–5 segments, whose shape, length, and hairiness (sensillae) may vary depending on the species of beetle. They are often clearly visible when viewed from below the head. They primarily perform a sensory function (containing sensory cells (chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors) for recognizing the taste, smell, and texture of food) and assist in food intake (the beetle uses its palps to "feel" and manipulate food before passing it to its jaws). |
| Pyskové makadlo | Labial palp | Palpus labialis | Labial palps are jointed appendages of the lower lip (labium), which corresponds to the fused secondary mandibles. Each labial palp usually has three segments, connected to paired structures called paraglossae. They perform a sensory function – similar to the mandibular palps, the labial palps also carry chemoreceptors that detect the chemical properties of food. They assist in manipulating food (helping to hold or move food towards the mouth). They are used to gently feel the surroundings in close proximity to the mouth, thus aiding in orientation. |
| Dolní pysk | Labium | Labium | Lower lip formed by fusion of the second pair of jaws; carries palpi labiales (palps labiales). |
| Gulární šev | Gular suture | Sutura gularis | The gular suture is a pair of longitudinal lines (sutures) on the underside of the beetle's head (on the so-called gular plate, or chin). It lies between the submentum and the genae, and borders the gular plate. It strengthens the head by providing mechanical strength between the left and right sides of the head. It allows movement of the mouthparts (the muscles controlling the jaws and labium connect at the gular suture). |
| Gula (Brada) | Gula | Gula | The gula is the middle sclerite (hardened shield) on the underside of the beetle's head, located between the cheeks (genae) on the sides and the gular sutures (suturae gulares). At the front, the gula is adjacent to the submentum (part of the lower lip) and at the rear to the occipital region (occiput) or cervical opening (foramen occipitale). The gula forms a support surface for the mouthparts and jaw muscles. |
| Bradička | Mentum | Mentum | The mentum is the middle sclerite (hardened segment) of the lower lip (labium), which lies above the submentum (base plate) and below the prementum (front movable part). The rear edge of the mentum adjoins the submentum, the front edge bears the labial palps (palpi labiales) and sometimes also the tongue (glossa) and lateral lobes (paraglossae). It provides attachment for the more mobile parts of the lip (prementum, palps, tongue). Muscles ensuring the mobility of the lower lip are attached to the inner side. |
Lateral regions of the head |
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| Líc (Tvář) | Genae (cheeks) | Genae | Lateral parts of the head below the eyes; often bearing the fangs of the incisors. |
| Subokulární oblast | Subocular area | Regio subocularis | Area under the eyes; conspicuously enlarged in some families. |
| Zadní líc (Postgena) | Postgena | Postgena | The rear (basal) part of the head, located behind the cheeks (genae) and below the occiput. It is part of the lower part of the head capsule between the cheek area and the neck. It allows the head to move relative to the prothorax; it forms the attachment site for the muscles that control head movement, especially ventral flexion and rotation. |
| Záhlaví (Spánek) | Temple | Templum | The lateral (side) area behind the eyes, between them and the edge of the occiput. Its size varies depending on the species - it can be narrow or broad. It protects the back of the head and the eyes; it often serves as an attachment site for muscles and sometimes plays a role in determining the shape of the head. |
Eyes and sensory organs |
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| Složené oči | Compound eyes | Oculi compositi | Formed by ommatidia; sense movement and shape. Size and position are important features. |
| Jednoduchá očka | Ocelli (simple eyes) | Ocelli | Small lenticular structures when present; usually three, located on the vertex. |
| Temenní šev | Coronal suture | Sutura coronalis | Line in middle of vertex, separating halves of head; sometimes distinct. |
Antennae |
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| Tykadlo | Antenna | Antenna | Paired sensory organ responding to chemical, tactile, and vibratory stimuli. |
| Tykadlový důlek | Antenna socket / torulus | Torulus | The place where the antenna is attached to the head. A pit-like or cup-like depression in the beetle's head into which the root of the antenna is inserted. Each antenna pit contains an opening through which the membrane and joint capsule for the first segment of the antenna (antennifer and torulus) pass. It secures the attachment, protects the base of the antenna, and allows it to move. |
| Nástavec tykadla | Scape | Scapus | The first link of the antenna, movably connected to the head. |
| Stopka | Pedicel | Pedicellus | Second article with Johnston's organ (vibration perception). |
| Bičík | Flagellum | Flagellum | Remnant of the antennae behind the pedicellus, composed of articles (flagellomerae). |
| Vějířek tykadel | Lamellate club | Clava lamellata | Modified tip of the antenna, where the last segments (called lamellae) are expanded and form a fan-like structure. The fan contains a large number of olfactory receptors and is used to detect odors, pheromones, or food. Sexual dimorphism: males often have longer and more branched fans, which increases their sensitivity to the scent signals of females. |
| Nitkovitá | Filiform | Filiformes | All segments are approximately the same thickness. |
| Kyjovitá (paličkovitá) | Clavate | Clavate | The terminal segments are thickened into a club. |
| Hlavičkovitá (bulcová) | Capitate | Capite | The terminal segments are suddenly widened into a head. |
| Lístkovitá | Lamellate | Lamellatus | The terminal segments are expanded into lamellae. |
| Hřebenitá (hřebenová) | Pectinate | Pectinatum | The segments have projections (on one or both sides), resembling the teeth of a comb. |
| Pilovitá | Serratae | Serratae | They have triangular segments resembling the teeth of a saw. |
| Kolenkovitá (kolénková) | Geniculate | Geniculate | They are distinguished by a sharp bend (typical for weevils); the first segment is elongated, the antenna is bent. |
Internal structures and appendages |
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Týlní deska |
Occipital plate | Lamina occipitalis | Posterior inner part of the head reinforcing the capsule. |
| Epikranium | Epicranium | Epicranium | The entire upper and posterior cover of the head above the forehead, vertex and occiput. |
| Jazýček | Hypopharynx (tongue-like structure) | Hypopharynx | Inner tongue-like structure in the mouth opening, helps manipulate food. |
| Tentorium (vnitřní kostra hlavy) | Tentorium | Tentorium | Internal reinforcing structure of the head formed by chitinized arms, used to clamp muscles. |
Other surface structures and features |
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| Rýha | Groove / sulcus | Sulcus | A groove or depression on the surface of the cuticle, e.g., subantennal or frontal sulcus. |
| Hřeben (Kýl) | Keel / carina | Carina | A prominent longitudinal ridge; may be diagnostically significant. |
| Jamka | Pit / fovea | Fovea | Small depression; sometimes contains sensory organs. |
| Žebrování / rýhování | Striation / sulcation | Striae / sulcationes | Surface texture of the head; may be part of the identifying key. |
Summary of functional areas of the head
- Sensory area - eyes, antennae, forehead, vertex.
- Oral area - clypeus, labrum, mandibulae, maxillae, labium.
- Nasal and articular area - genae, postgenae, occiput, foramen occipitale.
- Internal structures - tentorium and hypopharynx provide support and manipulation of food.
6.2 Thorax morphology
| Czech | English | Latin | Description / Functions |
Thorax as a whole |
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| Hruď | Thorax | Thorax | The middle body compartment between the head and the buttocks. It consists of three links - prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax. It bears legs and (in most species) wings. |
Thorax articles |
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| Předohruď | Prothorax | Prothorax | The first thoracic article, bearing the first pair of legs, in beetles without wings. It is the most mobile and variable. |
| Středohruď | Mesothorax | Mesothorax | Second thoracic article, carries the second pair of legs and forewings (elytra). Contains strong muscles for movement of the trunks. |
| Zadohruď | Metathorax | Metathorax | Third article, carries third pair of legs and hind (flight) wings. Contains the main flight muscles. |
The basic parts of each thoracic article |
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| Hřbetní destička | Notum | Notum | A general term for the upper (dorsal) part of one thoracic articulation. Each thoracic article has a notum - and is named after the article. Thus the Prothorax has a pronotum, the Mesothorax has a mesonotum, and the Metathorax has a metanotum. In beetles, for example, the pronotum is well developed and often covers the head from above. |
| Štít (pronotum) | Pronotum | Pronotum | It is the dorsal shield of the first thoracic article (prothorax). It lies just behind the head and is usually well developed and conspicuous, often covering part of the head from above. It varies in shape depending on the family (e.g. smooth and shiny in swifts, arched in mandellids, and variously shaped in weevils). In many beetles, the pronotum is a key feature in species identification. |
| Mesonotum | Mesonotum | Mesonotum | It is the dorsal part of the second thoracic article (mesothorax). It bears the front pair of wings - in beetles these are the trusses (elytra). In most species, the mesonotum is hidden under the pronotum and trusses, so it is not visible from the outside. |
| Metanotum | Metanotum | Metanotum | It is the dorsal part of the third thoracic article (metathorax). It bears the hind pair of wings (blanched flying wings). Like the mesonotum, it is usually covered by the scruff, and is only visible when the wings are spread. |
| Boční destička | Pleuron / pleura | Pleuron | The lateral part of the article connecting the notum and sternum. Carries the wing and leg appendages. Divides into episternum and epimeron. |
| Břišní destička (Sternum) | Sternum | Sternum | The lower (ventral) part of the article. Inside, the muscles of the legs are clamped. |
Subparts of the pleurite |
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| Episternum | Episternum | Episternum | Anterior part of pleura (lateral chest wall), in front of pleural suture; carries attachments of leg muscles. |
| Epimeron | Epimeron | Epimeron | Posterior part of pleura, behind pleural suture; strengthens lateral chest wall. |
| Pleurální šev | Pleural suture | Sutura pleuralis | The line separating the episternum and epimeron; often visible as a longitudinal groove. |
Related structures of the thorax |
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| Pleurit | Pleurite | Pars pleuralis (Pleuritis) | Sclerite forming the pleuron (lateral part of the chest). |
| Prosternum / Mesosternum / Metasternum | Prosternum / Mesosternum / Metasternum | Prosternum / Mesosternum / Metasternum | Individual sternal plates by articles. Metasternum tends to be the largest, with wing muscle attachments. |
| Prostenální výběžek | Prosternal process | Processus prosternalis | A protrusion (projection) extending from the prosternal (thoracic) plate, located between the front coxae (procoxae). It usually extends backward between the procoxal cavities and can be of various shapes (pointed, wide, narrow, flatter). It strengthens the connection between the prothorax and mesothorax. It allows for a firm attachment of the front legs and stabilizes the movement of the thoracic segments during walking or flying. |
| Štít | Pronotum | Pronotum | The dorsal plate of the prothorax; in most beetles clearly visible, often conspicuously shaped or ornamented. |
| Štítek | Scutellum (scutellar shield) | Scutellum | A triangular plate between the bases of the scutellum; belongs to the mid-thorax (mesothorax). |
| Krovka / Krovky | Elytron / Elytra (wing case) | Elytrum / Elytra | The modified, hardened forewing of beetles, protecting the hindwing and hind wings. |
| Epipleura (Postranní lem krovky) | Epipleuron | Epipleuron | The epipleura is the ventrally (downward) curved edge of the elytra, which transitions from the upper (dorsal) part of the elytra to its lower (lateral) side. It strengthens the edge of the elytra, which covers the abdomen and wings. It adheres to the sides of the abdomen or pterothorax, helping the elytra fit snugly to the body. It may aid airflow during flight. It may play an important role in species identification. |
| Krovkový šev | Elytral suture | Sutura elytralis | The line of contact and connection between the two elytra, which form a hard cover over the abdomen and hind wings. It usually runs longitudinally along the center of the dorsal side of the body. It protects the abdomen and hind wings from damage, drying out, and predators. The suture allows slight movement of the elytra when opening during flight. |
| Přední kyčelní dutiny (uzávěr předních kyčelních jamek) | Procoxal Cavities | Cavitates procoxales | Cavities or pits in the prothorax into which the coxae of the front legs are inserted. They can be closed or open towards the rear, which is an important diagnostic feature in beetle taxonomy. They allow joint movement of the front legs. Their shape and closure are important for the classification of families (e.g., Carabidae have closed cavities, Elateridae have open cavities). |
| Zadní kyčelní výběžek | Hind coxal process | Processus coxalis posterior | A process extending from the base of the hind coxae, often extending towards the middle of the abdomen or the midline of the body. It provides support for the hind legs and helps transfer force during walking or jumping. In some groups, it also serves to mechanically strengthen the connection between the thorax and abdomen. |
| Spirakulum (Dýchací otvor) | Spiracle | Spiraculum | A breathing hole on the side of the thorax or rump. In the thorax there is usually one pair on each segment. |
Legs appendages |
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| Nohy / končetina | Leg | Pera / Crus | The beetle’s leg is adapted for various lifestyles such as running, digging, swimming, or jumping. It generally consists of five main segments: coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus. |
| Kyčel | Coxa | Coxa | The first (basal) segment of the leg, articulated with the thoracic pleura. |
| Příkyčlí | Trochanter | Trochanter | The short connecting link between the coxa and the femur. |
| Stehno | Femur | Femur | The thick link of the leg, often the largest, containing muscles for movement. |
| Holeň | Tibia | Tibia | A long link between the femur and tarsus, often provided with spines or barbs. |
| Holenní ostruhy | Tibial spurs | Calcaria tibiae | These are hard, pointed projections located at the end of the tibia. They serve functions such as cleaning antennae, handling food, or aiding movement (e.g., digging). The number and shape of tibial spurs are important taxonomic characteristics. |
| Chodidlo | Tarsus | Tarsus | The terminal part of the foot composed of several links (tarsomeres), ending in a claw. |
| Článek chodidla | Tarsomere | Tarsomere | The tarsomeres together form the last, multi-part part of the foot, which allows for gentle movement and adherence to the surface. This part bears claws, suckers or bristles depending on the lifestyle of the beetle. The number of tarsomeres varies by beetle group and is an important taxonomic character. |
| Drápky na chodidle | Tarsal claws | Ungues tarsales | Paired hook-like structures at the end of the last tarsal segment. They help the beetle grip surfaces, climb plants, or hold prey. Their morphology can assist in species identification. |
| Pazourek (koncová část drápu) | Onychium | Onychium | The onychium is a small structure between the claws (called ungues) at the end of the tarsus. It often bears an adhesive pad or bristle tuft that helps the insect adhere to surfaces. |
Summary of functional thoracic regions
- Prothorax: carries the first pair of legs, provides head movement and orientation.
- Mesothorax: carries the trunk (forewings) and the second pair of legs.
- Metathorax: carries the hind (flight) wings and the rear pair of legs.
- Pleuron: provides the attachments of the flight muscles and the articulation of the legs and wings.
- Notum + Sternum: forms the rigid skeleton of the thoracic articulation, allowing the transmission of forces during locomotion.
6.3 Morphology of the abdomen
| Czech | English | Latin | Description / Functions |
The abdomen as a whole |
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| Zadeček | Abdomen | Abdomen | The posterior body compartment of the beetle, following the thorax. It contains most of the internal organs - digestive, excretory and reproductive. |
| Článek zadečku | Abdominal segment | Segmentum abdominale | The rump usually consists of 8-10 visible segments (up to 9 in females). Each segment has a dorsal, ventral and lateral part. |
The basic parts of each segment |
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| Sklerit (ztvrdlý plát kutikuly, chitinová destička) | Sclerite | Scleritum | A hardened sheet of cuticle forming part of the outer skeleton of an insect. It is the basic building unit of the exoskeleton, providing shape, protection and support to the muscles. Each body cell has the following three main sclerites, which together form a solid "armor": the tergite (dorsal (dorsal) sclerite), the sternite (ventral (ventral) sclerite), and the pleurite (lateral (lateral) sclerite). |
| Hřbetní deska | Tergite / tergum | Tergum | Dorsal (upper) sclerite of the articular; protects the buttocks from above. Individual tergites may be fused. |
| Břišní deska | Sternite / sternum | Sternum | Ventral (lower) sclerite of the article; forms the ventral side. |
| Boční část | Pleura / pleurite | Pleuron | Lateral connecting region between tergite and sternite; strengthens the segment and carries the spirulum. |
| Spojovací membrána | Intersegmental membrane | Membrana intersegmentalis | The soft membrane between the segments that allows movement and extension of the hindgut. |
Specific areas of the abdomen |
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| Přední část zadečku | Basal abdomen | Basis abdominis | Articles just posterior to the metathorax; often partially covered by the scrubs. |
| Zadní část zadečku | Apical abdomen | Apex abdominis | Last articles, often visible even when trusses retracted; in males terminated by genitalia. |
| Vrchol zadečku | Abdominal apex | Apex abdominis | Terminal region of the rump - may bear cerci, pygidium or genitalia. |
| Předposlední článek | Preapical segment | Segmentum praapicale | The segment immediately anterior to the last (anal) article. |
| Special formations on the abdomen | |||
| Pygidium (konečný hřbetní článek) | Pygidium | Pygidium | The last visible tergite; often flat or arched, sometimes used as a sex distinguishing mark. |
| Hypopygium (konečný spodní článek) | Hypopygium | Hypopygium | Last visible sternite (usually male); sometimes covering the genitalia. |
| Anální sternit / řitní sternit | Anal sternite / Anal sternum | Sternum anale / Sternit anale | The last abdominal plate of the abdomen, bearing or closing the anal opening. It closes the abdomen, serves as an attachment point for muscles, is part of the genital structures, and serves as a taxonomic character. It forms the anatomical basis of the hypopygium. |
| Urogomfi (výběžky larev) | Urogomphi | Urogomphi | Paired projections at the end of the rump (especially in larvae), used for protection or locomotion. |
| Spirakulum (Dýchací otvor) | Spiracle | Spiraculum | The breathing hole on the sides of each link, connected to the tracheal system. |
| Cerky (Přívěsky) | Cerci | Cerci | Appendages at the end of the hind end (rarely preserved in beetles), serving as sensory or defensive organs. |
| Genitální otvor (Gonopory) | Genital opening | Apertura genitalis | Opening of the genital tract, at the end of the buttocks (males - aedeagus, females - ovipositor). |
Genital organs (external morphology) |
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| Pohlavní články | Genital segments | Segmenta genitalia | Last occipital segments, transformed into external genitalia. |
| Kladélko | Ovipositor | Ovipositor | Female ovipositor organ for laying eggs; may be retractable or fixed. |
| Aedeagus (samčí kopulační orgán) | Aedeagus / male genitalia | Aedeagus | Male copulatory organ, composed of parameres, median lobes and endophallus. |
| Základna penisu | Phallobase | Phallobase | The basic (basal) part of the male copulatory organ to which the other parts are attached; used for attachment and movable connection with body segments. |
| Střední lalok penisu | Median lobe | Lobus medialis (penis) | The main, median part of the aedeagus containing the ejaculatory duct (ductus ejaculatorius); conducts semen during copulation. |
| Paramery (postanní laloky) | Parameres | Paramerae | Paired processes on the sides of the aedeagus; aid in female attachment and stabilization during copulation; their shape is important for species identification. |
| Endofalus (Vnitřní penis) | Endophallus (internal sac) | Endophallus | Soft, expandable part inside the median lobe that extends into the female genital tract during copulation; often provided with hooks or projections. |
| Gonopody | Gonopods | Gonopoda | Paired appendages on the genital segment of insects (male or female). In male beetles, they are usually part of the external genitalia, often as accessory structures of the penis (aedeagus). In males, they serve as copulatory organs for transferring sperm to the female. Their complex and species-specific morphology is crucial for taxonomic species determination. |
| Kladélkové chlopně (nebo jen chlopně) | Ovipositor valves | Valvulae ovipositoris | Parts of the female ovipositor, which are modified appendages (gonapophyses) of the 8th and 9th abdominal segments. Typically, these consist of 3 pairs of valves. They serve females for egg laying (oviposition) and often also for penetrating the substrate (e.g., soil, wood) for safe placement of eggs. |
| Sternit VIII / IX | Sternite VIII / IX | Sternum octavum / nonum | Terminal sternites often transformed into parts of the genitalia. |
Internal organs (basic overview for morphology) |
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| Trávicí trubice | Alimentary canal | Canalis alimentarius | Includes the stomach, intestine, and ductal organs, housed within the hindgut. |
| Malpighiho trubice | Malpighian tubules | Tubuli Malpighii | The excretory organs flowing into the intestine. |
| Vaječníky / varlata | Ovaries / testes | Ovaries / testes | Reproductive organs located in the posterior segments of the buttocks. |
| Hemocoel | Body cavity | Cavitas corporis | Body cavity filled with haemolymph and organs. |
General morphological and diagnostic concepts |
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| Žlábek | Groove / sulcus | Sulcus | A longitudinal or transverse groove, , located on the surface of the body of an insect, especially on the exoskeleton. It may, for example, separate tergites or be a diagnostic feature. |
| Kýl (karina) | Keel / carina | Carina | A term referring to a raised ridge-like structure or crest that is often longitudinal and protrudes above the surrounding surface. It is often present on tergites. |
| Jamka (fovea) | Pit / fovea | Fovea | Fovea is the term for a small, often spherical or oval pit that may be present on various parts of the insect's body. The fovea is found in a variety of morphological structures, usually on the head, thorax (chest) or trunks. This formation may serve various purposes, such as hiding sensors (e.g., eyes) or may be important for the deposition of glands that secrete fluids. |
| Tečkování (povrchová skulptura) | Punctation | Punctatio | Surface punctation on a cuticle; used to describe surface roughness. |
| Pubescence | Pubescence (hair covering) | Pubescentia | Hair or scales; density and length may be determinative. |
Aggregate functional areas of the abdomen
| Area | Function |
| Dorsal (tergal) | Protective, covering function; often reinforced. |
| Ventral (sternal) | Mechanical support; carries muscles and genital organs. |
| Lateral (pleural) | Carries the spiracle; involved in respiration and flexibility of the cells. |
| Apex abdominis | Sexual organs, sensory and protective structures. |
Summary of the functional logic of the abdomen
- Mechanical function: movement, flexibility due to membranes between the articles.
- Physiological function: contains most of the organs of digestion, excretion and reproduction.
- Diagnostic function: shape, punctation, pubescence and structure of pygidium, sternites or genitalia are key in beetle systematics.
